Free Scripting-and-Programming-Foundations Practice Test Questions and Answers (2026) | Cert Empire Practice Questions

The defining characteristic of object-oriented programming (OOP) is the concept of bundling data (attributes) and the methods (functions) that operate on that data into a single unit called an "object." This allows a program to be decomposed into a collection of interacting objects. This principle, often involving concepts like encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism, is unique to OOP and distinguishes it from procedural and functional paradigms, which organize programs around procedures or functions, respectively.

A. Recursion is a prominent feature of functional programming, where problems are often solved by applying a function to its own output.

B. Modular programming and calling subroutines (procedures or functions) are the foundational concepts of the procedural programming paradigm.

C. Treating programs as the evaluation of mathematical functions is the core principle of the functional programming paradigm.

1. Abelson, H., & Sussman, G. J. (1996). Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (2nd ed.). MIT Press. Chapter 3, "Modularity, Objects, and State." Section 3.1 discusses the concept of assignment and local state, which leads to the object-oriented paradigm of grouping state and operations.

2. Guttag, J. V. (2021). 6.0001 Introduction to Computer Science and Programming in Python. Massachusetts Institute of Technology: MIT OpenCourseWare. Lecture 8: Object Oriented Programming. Defines OOP as a style of programming that involves bundling data and functions that work on that data into objects.

3. Weisfeld, M. (2019). The Object-Oriented Thought Process (5th ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional. Chapter 1, "Introduction to Object-Oriented Concepts." "The fundamental concept of object-oriented (OO) development is to view a system as a set of interacting objects."

An algorithm is a finite, unambiguous sequence of well-defined instructions for solving a problem or performing a task. The option "Unplug the device, wait 30 seconds, and restart the device" provides a clear, step-by-step procedure to achieve a specific outcome (rebooting the device). Each step is a distinct, executable action, and the sequence is finite, fitting the formal definition of an algorithm.

A. The list contains apples bananas, and oranges: This describes a data structure (a list of items), not a sequence of instructions to perform a task.

B. A webpage uses an HTML file type: This is a statement of fact about a file's property, not a procedural set of steps.

C. The sign of two integers determines the sign of the product: This is a mathematical rule or property, not a step-by-step process for calculation.

1. Cormen, T. H., Leiserson, C. E., Rivest, R. L., & Stein, C. (2009). Introduction to Algorithms (3rd ed.). MIT Press. Chapter 1, Section 1.1, defines an algorithm as "any well-defined computational procedure that takes some value, or set of values, as input and produces some value, or set of values, as output." The example is a procedure.

2. Knuth, D. E. (1997). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional. In Section 1.1, Knuth outlines five key features of an algorithm: finiteness, definiteness, input, output, and effectiveness. The provided example meets these criteria.

3. Aho, A. V., Hopcroft, J. E., & Ullman, J. D. (1983). Data Structures and Algorithms. Addison-Wesley. The book's introduction defines an algorithm as "a finite sequence of instructions, each of which has a clear meaning and can be performed with a finite amount of effort in a finite length of time."

The modulo operator (%) returns the remainder of an integer division. In a base-10 number system, dividing any integer by 10 yields a remainder equal to its rightmost digit. For the integer q = 16222, the expression q % 10 calculates 16222 / 10, which is 1622 with a remainder of 2. Therefore, q % 10 evaluates to 2, the rightmost digit.

A. q / 100000 is integer division, resulting in 0, as 16222 is less than 100000.

B. 10 % q calculates the remainder of 10 divided by 16222, which is 10, not the rightmost digit of q.

D. q % 10000 calculates the remainder of 16222 divided by 10000, which is 6222.

1. International Organization for Standardization. (2011). ISO/IEC 14882:2011 Information technology — Programming languages — C++. Section 5.6, "Multiplicative operators," defines the % operator as yielding the remainder from the division of the first expression by the second.

2. Oracle. (n.d.). Primitive Data Types. The Java™ Tutorials. Retrieved from https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/datatypes.html. This documentation describes the remainder operator % for numeric types.

3. Harvard University. (n.d.). CS50x 2024: Lecture 1 - C. Section on "Operators." The lecture explains how i % 10 can be used to get the last digit of an integer i.

In standard procedural programming and algorithm design, a variable must be declared before it can be assigned a value or evaluated, and outputting data is generally the final step of a calculation sequence. The provided sequence attempts to output an undeclared, uncalculated variable in step 1 and declares it at the very end in step 4. By swapping step 1 and step 4, the algorithm establishes the correct logical sequence: it first declares the variable (new step 1), calculates the initial arithmetic difference (step 2), applies the conditional logic to ensure the value is positive (step 3), and finally outputs the resolved variable (new step 4).

Option A: Switching steps 1 and 2 places the assignment before the declaration and still executes the output command before the conditional check can guarantee a positive integer.

Option B: Switching steps 2 and 4 places the variable declaration second, leaving the initial output step executing first, which will fail as the variable is neither declared nor calculated.

Option D: Switching steps 3 and 4 leaves the output step at the beginning, meaning the algorithm will attempt to print an uninitialized variable before any calculations occur.

MIT OpenCourseWare (Massachusetts Institute of Technology): 6.0001 Introduction to Computer Science and Programming in Python. Lecture 1: "What is Computation?" Section on declarative knowledge, variables, and procedural sequencing. This courseware establishes the fundamental requirement that variables must be declared and initialized prior to evaluation or output.

Dijkstra, E. W. (1970): Notes on Structured Programming. (EWD249). Section 3: "On the Reliability of Mechanisms." Discusses strict sequential execution and the necessity of state initialization (variable declaration) preceding state mutation and output in algorithmic design.

C++ is a general-purpose programming language created as an extension of the C programming language. It was designed with a primary focus on providing comprehensive, built-in support for the object-oriented programming (OOP) paradigm. Its core features include classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation, which are the fundamental principles of OOP. This extensive support makes it one of the most prominent and widely used object-oriented languages.

A. Markup: Markup is a category of languages (e.g., HTML, XML) used for annotating documents; it is not a programming paradigm like OOP.

B. HTML: HTML is a markup language for structuring web content. It is not a programming language and lacks logic, behavior, and OOP features.

C. C: C is a procedural programming language. It does not have native support for OOP concepts like classes or inheritance.

1. Stroustrup, B. (2013). The C++ Programming Language (4th ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional. In Chapter 2, Section 2.4, Stroustrup introduces C++'s support for object-oriented programming as a primary design goal, focusing on classes for creating user-defined types.

2. ISO/IEC 14882:2020. (2020). Programming languages — C++. International Organization for Standardization. The official standard for C++ defines the language features that support OOP, including classes (Clause 11), derived classes/inheritance (Clause 12), and virtual functions/polymorphism (11.7.3).

3. Pratt, T. W., & Zelkowitz, M. V. (2001). Programming Languages: Design and Implementation (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. Chapter 9 discusses object-oriented programming, highlighting C++ as a key example of a language that extends a procedural base (C) with extensive OOP capabilities.

The modulo operator (%) returns the remainder of an integer division. To find the rightmost digit of any integer in a base-10 system, you can find the remainder of that integer when divided by 10. For the integer q = 7777, the expression q % 10 evaluates to 7777 % 10, which results in a remainder of 7, the rightmost digit.

A. 10 % q calculates the remainder of 10 divided by 7777, which is 10, not the rightmost digit of q.

C. q / 10000 performs integer division of 7777 by 10000, which results in 0.

D. q % 10000 calculates the remainder of 7777 divided by 10000, which is 7777.

1. Van Rossum, G. (2023). The Python Language Reference. Python Software Foundation. Section 6.7, "Binary arithmetic operations". The documentation specifies that x % y yields the remainder from the division of x by y.

2. Downey, A. B. (2015). Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist (2nd ed.). Green Tea Press. Chapter 2, "Variables, expressions and statements," Section 2.6, "Operators and operands." The modulo operator is explained as working on integers to find the remainder.

3. DeNero, J. (2020). Composing Programs. University of California, Berkeley. Section 1.5.2, "Division." "The remainder operator, %, computes the remainder of a division."

The agile approach involves iterative cycles of planning, executing, and evaluating. The act of "writing new procedural code and eliminating certain function calls" is the direct process of creating and modifying the software's source code. This activity falls squarely within the Implementation (or Development) phase, where the designs and requirements from earlier in the iteration are translated into a functional program.

A. Testing is the phase where the written code is verified to ensure it works correctly, not the writing itself.

B. Design is the phase where the program's architecture, modules, and functions are planned before coding begins.

D. Analysis is the phase focused on gathering and understanding the user requirements and project goals.

1. Pressman, R. S., & Maxim, B. R. (2020). Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Approach (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Chapter 4, "An Agile View of Process," describes the implementation activities within an agile iteration.

2. Fowler, M. (2005). The New Methodology. MartinFowler.com. Retrieved from https://martinfowler.com/articles/newMethodology.html (This article describes agile development, where the construction/implementation activity is a core part of each iteration.)

3. University of California, Berkeley. (n.d.). CS 169 Software Engineering Course. The course materials frequently distinguish between agile phases, placing coding activities within the implementation/development stage of a sprint.

An algorithm requires a precise and logical sequence of steps to be successful. In the given procedure, buying materials (listed as the second step) cannot logically happen before determining what materials are needed (listed as the third step). To correct the algorithm, the step of determining materials must be performed before the step of buying them. Therefore, steps 2 and 3 must be switched.

A. Switching 1 and 3 is incorrect. You must determine the materials needed (e.g., lumber) before you can measure and mark them.

B. Switching 1 and 2 is incorrect. You must buy the materials before you can measure and mark them.

D. Switching 2 and 4 is incorrect. You must buy the lumber before you can perform the step of cutting it.

1. Cormen, T. H., Leiserson, C. E., Rivest, R. L., & Stein, C. (2009). Introduction to Algorithms (3rd ed.). MIT Press. Chapter 1.1, "Algorithms," defines an algorithm as a well-defined computational procedure. The correctness of the procedure depends on the proper sequencing of its steps.

2. Sedgewick, R., & Wayne, K. (2011). Algorithms (4th ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional. Section 1.1, "Basic Programming Model," implicitly relies on the sequential execution of statements to define algorithmic processes.

3. MIT OpenCourseWare. (2011). 6.0001 Introduction to Computer Science and Programming in Python, Fall 2016. Lecture 2. The course defines an algorithm as a "sequence of simple steps" and emphasizes the importance of the order of those steps.

C, C++, and Java are all classified as compiled languages. In this model, the human-readable source code is processed by a compiler program before execution. The compiler translates the source code into a lower-level representation. For C and C++, this is typically native machine code specific to the target processor. For Java, the compiler generates platform-independent bytecode, which is then executed by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). Despite the intermediate step for Java, the essential pre-execution translation by a compiler is the common, defining characteristic.

A. Markup languages like HTML are used for document structuring and presentation, not for creating the logic of an application.

C. Interpreted languages are processed line-by-line at runtime. C, C++, and Java all require a distinct, ahead-of-time compilation step.

D. Machine code is the result of compiling languages like C and C++; it is the target language, not the source language category.

1. Pratt, T. W., & Zelkowitz, M. V. (2001). Programming Languages: Design and Implementation (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. Chapter 2 discusses language translation, clearly distinguishing compiled languages (like C, C++) from interpreted ones.

2. Stroustrup, B. (2013). The C++ Programming Language (4th ed.). Addison-Wesley. The preface and early chapters describe C++ as a language designed for compilation to produce efficient, executable code.

3. Gosling, J., Joy, B., Steele, G., & Bracha, G. (2014). The Java Language Specification, Java SE 8 Edition. Oracle America, Inc. Chapter 1, Section 1.2, describes the compilation of Java code into the machine-independent bytecode format of the Java Virtual Machine.

The task is to iterate through a collection of a known size (the array) and perform an action on each element. A for loop is the most appropriate and idiomatic control structure for this purpose. It is specifically designed for iterating a fixed number of times, such as the length of an array, handling the initialization, condition check, and increment of a counter variable in a single, clear statement.

A. A while loop can be used, but it is less conventional for iterating over a known-size array and requires manual management of the counter variable.

B. Nested for loops are used for iterating over multi-dimensional data structures (e.g., a 2D array), which is unnecessary for this simple task.

C. if statements are used for conditional execution (branching), not for iteration or looping through a collection of elements.

1. Downey, A. B. (2015). Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist (2nd ed.). Green Tea Press. Section 4.2, "for statements," explains that for loops are used to iterate through a sequence.

2. The Python Language Reference. (n.d.). 8.3. The for statement. Python Software Foundation. Retrieved from https://docs.python.org/3/reference/compoundstmts.html#the-for-statement. This document defines the for statement as being "used to iterate over the elements of a sequence (such as a string, tuple or list) or other iterable object."

3. Gaddis, T. (2018). Starting Out with Programming Logic and Design (5th ed.). Pearson. Chapter 4, "The for Loop," describes it as a pretest loop ideal for situations where the exact number of iterations is known.

The pseudocode initializes the variable x to 2. It then initiates a for loop where the counter i starts at 3. The loop condition specifies that it will run as long as i < 6, incrementing i by 1 after each pass. Inside the loop, x is continuously reassigned to the result of 3 * i. The loop executes for i values of 3, 4, and 5. During the final iteration where the condition holds true (i = 5), x is calculated as 3 multiplied by 5, resulting in 15. The counter i then increments to 6, failing the i < 6 condition and terminating the loop. The final instruction outputs the last assigned value of x, which is 15.

A. 6

This is incorrect because it reflects the outcome only if the loop ran for i = 2, or if the operation was a simple addition like x = i + 3 during the first iteration.

B. 12

This represents the value of x during the second iteration of the loop when i = 4 (3 times 4), missing the final loop execution.

D. 18

This would be the result if the loop condition was i <= 6, which would allow one additional iteration where x = 3 * 6.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) OpenCourseWare. "Introduction to Computer Science and Programming in Python" (6.0001). Lecture 2: Branching and Iteration. Focuses on control flow mechanisms and tracking variable state changes during iterations.

Stanford University. "Programming Methodology" (CS106A). Courseware materials on definitive loops, control structures, and evaluating terminal conditions in standard programming paradigms.

Cormen, T. H., Leiserson, C. E., Rivest, R. L., & Stein, C. (2009). Introduction to Algorithms (3rd ed.). MIT Press. Section 2.1: Insertion sort (includes detailed methodology for analyzing loop invariants and termination steps).

Functional programming is a paradigm where programs are constructed by applying and composing functions. Computation is treated as the evaluation of mathematical functions, and it avoids changing-state and mutable data. A program written in a functional style is often a series of nested or chained function (method) calls, which directly matches the description in the question. This approach emphasizes what to compute, not how to compute it.

A. Static refers to static typing, where type checking is done at compile-time, not a programming paradigm based on function composition.

B. Compiled refers to the implementation method where source code is translated into machine code before runtime, not the language's structure.

D. Markup languages, like HTML, are used for annotating documents and are not programming languages designed for computation via method calls.

1. Abelson, H., & Sussman, G. J. (1996). Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (2nd ed.). MIT Press. Section 1.1.6, "Conditional Expressions and Predicates," introduces the concept of computation as the evaluation of expressions composed of functions.

2. Hughes, J. (1989). Why Functional Programming Matters. The Computer Journal, 32(2), 98-107. https://doi.org/10.1093/comjnl/32.2.98 (This paper extensively discusses the modular design facilitated by composing functions.)

3. The Python Software Foundation. (n.d.). Functional Programming HOWTO. Python 3.12.3 documentation. Retrieved from https://docs.python.org/3/howto/functional.html. The introduction states, "Functional programming decomposes a problem into a set of functions."

A person's body temperature is a measurement that requires decimal precision (e.g., 98.6°F). The float data type is designed to store floating-point numbers, which are real numbers that can have a fractional part. Using an integer would truncate the decimal portion, leading to a loss of precision. A string would store the value as text, preventing mathematical operations, and a boolean can only represent true or false states. Therefore, a float is the most appropriate data type for this value.

A. Boolean represents only true or false values, which is unsuitable for a numerical measurement like temperature.

B. Integer represents only whole numbers and would inaccurately store a temperature like 98.6 as 98.

C. String represents text and would prevent the temperature value from being used in numerical calculations.

1. Python Software Foundation. (n.d.). The Python Tutorial: 3.1.1. Numbers. Python 3.12.3 documentation. Retrieved from https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#numbers. (This section describes float as representing floating-point numbers, which include fractional parts).

2. Guttag, J. V. (2016). Introduction to Computation and Programming Using Python: With Application to Understanding Data. MIT Press. In Chapter 2.1, "Objects, Expressions, and Numerical Types," the text distinguishes between integers (int) and floating-point numbers (float), noting that floats are used for real numbers.

3. MIT OpenCourseWare. (2016). 6.0001 Introduction to Computer Science and Programming in Python, Fall 2016. Lecture 2, Slide 7. Retrieved from https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-0001-introduction-to-computer-science-and-programming-in-python-fall-2016/resources/mit60001f16lec2/. (The slide explicitly lists float as the type for numbers with decimal points).

Safely replacing an electrical component fundamentally requires isolating the circuit to prevent electrical shock or thermal injury. Therefore, the initial step is to de-energize the circuit (turn the lamp off). Once isolated, the hazardous or defective component is removed (unscrew broken bulb). The replacement component is then installed into the unpowered socket (screw in working bulb). Finally, the circuit is re-energized to verify operational integrity (turn lamp on). This sequence aligns with standard de-energization and component servicing protocols.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). (2024/26). Standard Number 1910.333 - Selection and use of work practices. U.S. Department of Labor. Section (b)(2): "Lockout and Tagging" (outlining the fundamental requirement to de-energize and verify equipment is safe before servicing or replacing parts).

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. MIT OpenCourseWare: 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2024/26. "General Laboratory Safety Guidelines." Section 2.1: Electrical Hazards (detailing the necessity of disconnecting power sources prior to modifying any circuit elements or components).

The defining characteristic of an object-oriented language is its set of core principles that structure programs around objects rather than actions. Option A correctly lists these key features: custom data types (classes) that bundle data and methods (encapsulation), information hiding, representing essential features without including background details (abstraction), the ability of objects to take on many forms (polymorphism), and creating new classes based on existing ones (inheritance). These concepts collectively distinguish the object-oriented paradigm from others like procedural or functional programming.

B. Portability is a feature of many languages, including non-object-oriented ones, and is not a unique or defining characteristic of OOP.

C. This describes static typing, a feature found in many paradigms (e.g., procedural C) and not present in all OOP languages (e.g., Python).

D. This describes procedural programming, which focuses on a sequence of instructions, contrasting with OOP's focus on objects and their interactions.

1. Weisfeld, M. (2019). The Object-Oriented Thought Process (5th ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional. Chapter 2, "How to Think in Terms of Objects," details encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism as fundamental OOP concepts.

2. MIT OpenCourseWare. (2016). 6.005 Software Construction, Reading 10: Abstract Data Types. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved from ocw.mit.edu. This reading explains how abstract data types are the foundation for encapsulation and information hiding, central tenets of object-oriented design.

3. Stroustrup, B. (2013). The C++ Programming Language (4th ed.). Addison-Wesley. In Section 2.5, "Object-Oriented Programming," Stroustrup defines OOP through its support for data abstraction, encapsulation, and inheritance.

The function K concatenates s1, " and ", and s2 to output without adding any line breaks or separators between function calls. When K("sign", "horse") is called the first time, it outputs "sign and horse". When called the second time, it immediately appends "sign and horse" to the existing output. Since there are no newline characters or spaces inserted between consecutive function calls, the outputs are concatenated directly, resulting in "sign and horsesign and horse".

A. Includes an extra " and " between the two calls, which the function doesn't add.

C. Shows output from only one function call, not two.

D. Shows output from only one function call, not two.

E. Includes a space between the two function call outputs, which isn't added by the function.

- Gaddis, T. (2019). Starting Out with Programming Logic and Design (5th ed.). Pearson. Chapter 6: Functions, pp. 234-237 (Function output concatenation)

- Sebesta, R. W. (2016). Concepts of Programming Languages (11th ed.). Pearson. Chapter 9: Subprograms, Section 9.2, pp. 391-393 (Function execution and output handling)

- MIT OpenCourseWare. (2011). 6.00SC Introduction to Computer Science and Programming. Lecture 4: Functions. https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-00sc-introduction-to-computer-science-and-programming-spring-2011/

The C programming language is fundamentally a procedural programming language. This paradigm focuses on procedures or functions that perform operations on data. C is also a statically-typed language, meaning that the data type of every variable must be declared at compile time, and type checking is performed before the program is executed. The type of a variable is fixed and cannot change during runtime. This combination of a procedural paradigm with static typing is a defining characteristic of C.

A. C is not a dynamically-typed language; variable types are fixed at compile time.

C. C is primarily procedural, not functional. It also does not use dynamic types.

D. While C can be used to write event-driven applications, its core paradigm is procedural, not inherently event-driven.

1. Kernighan, B. W., & Ritchie, D. M. (1988). The C Programming Language (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. Chapter 1, "A Tutorial Introduction," introduces C through its procedural nature with functions. Chapter 2, "Types, Operators, and Expressions," details its static type system.

2. ISO/IEC 9899:2018. (2018). Information technology — Programming languages — C. Section 6.2.5, "Types," specifies the static nature of types in the C standard.

3. Stanford University. (n.d.). CS107: Programming Paradigms. Course materials describe C as a procedural language and contrast its static type system with the dynamic types of languages like Python.

In procedural programming, variables must be declared before they can be used for assignment or any other operation. The steps "Set Diff = x - y," "If y > x, set Diff = y - x," and "Put Diff to output" all presuppose that a memory location named Diff has already been established. Therefore, the declaration of the variable Diff is the logical and necessary first step in the algorithm's sequence.

A. Outputting a result is a terminal step that occurs after all necessary computations are complete.

B. This assignment operation requires the variable Diff to have been declared first.

C. This conditional assignment also cannot be performed until the variable Diff has been declared.

1. Stroustrup, B. (2013). The C++ Programming Language (4th ed.). Addison-Wesley. Section 2.2, "Variables and Basic Types," explains that a variable must be declared to associate a name with a piece of memory before it can be used.

2. Downey, A. B. (2015). Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist (2nd ed.). O'Reilly Media. Chapter 2, Section 2.1, "Assignment statements," notes that a variable must be created (which in many languages is done via declaration) before a value can be assigned to it.

3. Kernighan, B. W., & Ritchie, D. M. (1988). The C Programming Language (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. Chapter 1, Section 1.2, "Variables and Arithmetic Expressions," states, "All variables must be declared before use."

A valid test case consists of a set of inputs and the corresponding expected outputs based on the algorithm's specification. The algorithm's rule is: if the input is between 98.3 and 98.9, the output is "OK". The number 98.6 falls within this range. Therefore, a valid test is to provide 98.6 as input and verify that the output is "OK". This type of test, which checks the primary success scenario, is often called a "happy path" test.

A. This option contains a typographical error ("M98 9 ") for the expected output, making the test description invalid as written. A correct test would expect "Not OK".

C. The input 99.9 is outside the specified range. According to the algorithm's "else" condition, the output should be "Not OK", not "OK". This describes an incorrect expectation.

D. The input 98.6 is inside the specified range. The expected output should be "OK", not "Not OK". This describes an incorrect expectation.

1. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) OpenCourseWare. (2011). 6.170 Software Studio, Lecture 3: Testing. This lecture covers the principles of testing, including choosing test cases that cover different paths through the code, such as inputs that satisfy a condition and inputs that do not.

2. Ammann, P., & Offutt, J. (2016). Introduction to Software Testing (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Chapter 1 defines a test case as including the input values and the expected results needed to evaluate the software.

In an agile process, design is an ongoing activity that occurs within each iteration or sprint, rather than a single upfront phase. During an iteration's design activities, the development team determines the specific technical approach to implement user stories. This includes identifying the necessary functions, classes, methods, and their interactions to meet the requirements of the features being built in that specific cycle. This detailed, just-in-time design is a hallmark of agile development, focusing on the immediate work at hand.

A. Writing objects is part of the implementation or development phase, which follows the design decisions made within the sprint.

B. Deciding the overall scope of the program is a high-level planning or inception activity that typically occurs before the first sprint begins.

C. Determining the high-level goals of the project is part of the initial project vision and chartering, preceding the iterative development cycles.

1. Fowler, M. (2005). The New Methodology. MartinFowler.com. Section: "Iterative Development". Fowler explains that in iterative methods like agile, design is spread throughout the project in small increments.

2. University of California, Berkeley. (2016). Agile Development. Agile 101, EECS 194. The course material describes how design in agile is emergent and happens in every sprint, focusing on the current backlog items.

3. Ambler, S. W. (2013). Agile Modeling (AM) Home Page. AgileModeling.com. Section: "Core Principles of Agile Modeling". Principle #3, "Create Several Models in Parallel," and Principle #5, "Model in Small Increments," describe how design activities (modeling) are continuous and iterative.