The principle of least privilege is a foundational concept in information security. It dictates that any user, program, or process should have only the bare minimum permissions necessary to perform its intended function. This principle is a proactive measure designed to limit the potential damage from a malicious attack or an accidental error. By restricting access rights for users and systems to only what is absolutely required, it significantly reduces the overall attack surface of the IT environment, thereby enhancing data security by preventing unauthorized access and lateral movement within a network.

B. Session Management: This is a technical mechanism used to track a user's interactions with a system, not a foundational security principle.

C. ARP Spoofing: This is a type of network attack where an attacker sends falsified ARP messages; it is a security threat, not a principle.

D. Ciphertext: This is the term for data that has been encrypted. It is a state of data, not a guiding security principle.

1. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). (2020). Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and Organizations (NIST Special Publication 800-53, Revision 5). Page 63, Control AC-6 Least Privilege. The document states, "The organization employs the principle of least privilege, allowing only authorized accesses for users (or processes acting on behalf of users) which are necessary to accomplish assigned tasks..."

2. Saltzer, J. H., & Schroeder, M. D. (1975). The Protection of Information in Computer Systems. Communications of the ACM, 17(7), 38-49. Section I.A.1, "Economy of mechanism," and I.A.4, "Least privilege." This seminal, peer-reviewed paper establishes least privilege as one of the core design principles for secure systems. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/361011.361062

3. Cisco. (2016). CCNA Cyber Ops SECFND 210-250 Official Cert Guide. Cisco Press. Chapter 1, "Cybersecurity and the Security Operations Center," discusses fundamental security principles, including the principle of least privilege as a key concept for access control.