The ausearch command is used to query the audit daemon logs. To translate numeric entities within the log output, such as system call numbers, user IDs, or group IDs, into their human-readable text equivalents, the -i or --interpret option is used. In the given scenario, this option would convert syscall=83 to syscall=mkdir in the output. The option -I (capital I) as presented in the choice is a common typographical error for -i (lowercase i), which is the correct flag to achieve the desired result.

A. The -a option is used to search for a specific audit event ID. It does not affect the interpretation or formatting of the output.

C. The -sc option is a search filter to find events matching a specific syscall name or number. It does not change how the syscall is displayed in the output.

D. The --format option is not a valid parameter in ausearch for interpreting numeric values into text. The default output is already a text format.

E. The -r or --raw option displays data exactly as it is in the log, without any interpretation, which is the opposite of what is required.

1. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 Documentation

"Chapter 25. System Auditing"

Section 25.5.3. Searching for Audit Events. This official documentation states

"To make the output of ausearch more readable

use the -i or --interpret option. This option interprets numeric entities

such as UIDs or GIDs

into text."

2. Oracle® Linux 8 Documentation

"Monitoring System Events with auditd"

Section 2.5. Searching for Audit Events. The Oracle Linux documentation confirms the use of the -i flag: "To interpret the numeric values in the output

such as system call numbers and user and group IDs

into human-readable equivalents

use the -i option."

3. ausearch(8) Linux Manual Page. The primary technical reference

the man page for ausearch

defines the option as: -i

--interpret "Interpret numeric entities into text. For example

uid is converted to account name

syscall is converted to its name

etc."

GRUB 2 is a versatile bootloader that can directly load various operating system kernels, such as Linux, because it understands their executable formats. For proprietary systems like Windows, it uses a method called chain-loading, where it loads the other system's bootloader and passes control to it. A significant advancement in GRUB 2 over its predecessors is its native support for various filesystems (e.g., ext4, XFS, Btrfs). This allows it to locate and load the kernel and initial RAM disk files by their pathnames, eliminating the need to know their physical block locations on the storage device.

A. The correct path for the user-editable configuration file is /etc/default/grub, not /etc/default/grub2.

C. The main GRUB 2 configuration file is named grub.cfg (located in /boot/grub2/), not grub2.conf.

1. Oracle® Linux 8: Managing Core System Configuration

Chapter 3. Managing the Boot Loader.

Section 3.1

"About the GRUB 2 Boot Loader": States

"GRUB 2 can read file systems such as Btrfs

ext4

and XFS

which means that it can access files on a device by file name... GRUB 2 can also chain load another boot loader to boot operating systems such as Windows." This directly supports options B and D.

Section 3.2

"GRUB 2 Configuration": Specifies

"The main configuration file for GRUB 2 is /boot/grub2/grub.cfg... You should not edit this file directly. Instead

you should edit the /etc/default/grub file..." This confirms that options A and C use incorrect file names.

2. GNU GRUB Manual 2.06

Chapter 3. GRUB image files.

Section 3.1

"An overview of the boot process": Explains

"GRUB has a knowledge of filesystems... This means that you can specify a kernel image by a file name... without having to worry about the physical location of the kernel image on a disk." This validates option D.

Section 6.3

"Chain-loading": Describes the chainloader command

which is used to "load a boot loader for another operating system". This validates option B.

To enable a user to "read and navigate to" a directory, two specific permissions are required: read (r) and execute (x). The read permission allows the user to list the contents of the directory. The execute permission, often called the "search" or "traverse" permission for directories, allows the user to enter the directory (e.g., using the cd command). The command setfacl --modify user:user2:r-x mydirectory uses an Access Control List (ACL) to grant both of these necessary permissions to the specific user (user2) without altering the base permissions for the owner, group, or others.

A. The --default flag sets ACLs for new items created inside the directory, not for the directory itself, and it omits the required execute (x) permission.

B. This command grants only read (r) permission, which is insufficient for navigating into the directory.

C. The -x option is for removing an ACL entry, which is the opposite of the required action.

E. This command modifies permissions for the group test, not the specific user user2, and it fails to grant the necessary execute (x) permission.

1. Oracle® Linux 8 Documentation

Managing File Systems

Chapter 10. Managing File System ACLs

Section 10.3. Setting ACLs. This document details the usage of the setfacl command with the -m or --modify option to set permissions for a specific user or group on a file or directory. It provides examples such as setfacl -m u:username:r-x file

which directly corresponds to the correct answer's syntax.

2. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 Documentation

Configuring basic system settings

Chapter 10. Using access control lists

Section 10.2. File system permissions. This official source clarifies the meaning of directory permissions: "For directories

the r (read) permission allows to list the directory's contents

and the x (execute) permission allows to enter the directory." This directly supports the requirement for r-x to fulfill the question's prompt.

3. University of Illinois

CS 241: System Programming Courseware

Guide to Unix Permissions. This academic resource explains the distinction for directory permissions: "Execute: For a directory

this permission (also called 'search') allows you to enter the directory (i.e. cd into it) and access any of its files." This confirms that the "navigate" requirement translates to the execute (x) permission.

Persistent kernel boot parameters are configured in two primary ways on modern systems like Oracle Linux. The /etc/default/grub file is used for global settings; parameters added to the GRUBCMDLINELINUX directive in this file are applied to all kernel menu entries after regenerating the main configuration.

Additionally, systems using the Boot Loader Specification (BLS), such as Oracle Linux 8 and later, manage boot entries via individual configuration files located in /boot/loader/entries/. Each file corresponds to a specific kernel and contains an options line where kernel-specific boot parameters are defined, ensuring they are persistent for that entry.

B. Changes made at the GRUB command-line interface are temporary and apply only to the immediate boot session; they are not persistent across reboots.

D. Editing parameters from the GRUB 2 boot menu (by pressing 'e') is a non-persistent method that only affects the current boot.

1. Oracle Linux 9 Documentation

Managing Core System Configuration

Chapter 3. Working with the GRUB 2 Boot Loader

Section 3.3. Modifying Kernel Boot Parameters: This section details the two methods for making persistent changes. It states

"To apply a change to all boot entries

you would edit the /etc/default/grub file... On systems where the Boot Loader Specification (BLS) is enabled... each kernel has its own configuration file in the /boot/loader/entries directory."

2. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 Documentation

Configuring basic system settings

Chapter 26. Managing the boot loader

Section 26.5. Adding kernel boot parameters: This official documentation (for the upstream distribution of Oracle Linux) explicitly confirms both correct methods: "To add kernel boot parameters to all menu entries

use the /etc/default/grub file. To add kernel boot parameters to a single menu entry

use the /boot/loader/entries/ files." It also clarifies that temporary changes are made by editing the boot menu.

The mdadm output shows the array State is clean, degraded, recovering. The degraded and recovering states indicate that the array is operating with a missing device but is actively rebuilding its data onto a replacement. The device /dev/sdf1 has the status spare rebuilding, which confirms that a spare drive has been automatically engaged to replace a failed one (C). This rebuilding process is I/O-intensive, as data must be read from all other active disks to reconstruct the data for the new disk. This overhead significantly impacts both read and write performance, making the overall RAID set performance sub-optimal until the rebuild is complete (B).

A. The array is degraded, recovering, which is not a normal operating status; normal status would be clean without the other flags.

D. The process shown is recovering from a failure, not reshaping to increase the array's size, which is a different operation.

E. Both read and write performance are sub-optimal because reconstructing data for reads from the failed portion and writing parity during the rebuild impacts all I/O.

---

1. Oracle® Linux 8: Managing Storage Devices

Chapter 4

"Working with RAID"

Section 4.6 "Monitoring a RAID Device". The documentation explains that the mdadm --detail command displays the array's state. A state including degraded and recovering indicates a rebuild is in progress after a device failure

during which "performance is affected." The presence of a spare rebuilding device confirms a spare has been activated for this purpose.

2. The mdadm(8) Linux manual page. Under the description of array states

recovering is defined as the state where "the array is being rebuilt to recover from a failure." The device state spare rebuilding indicates a spare device is the target of this reconstruction. This process inherently requires heavy I/O

impacting performance.

3. Patterson

D. A.

Gibson

G.

& Katz

R. H. (1988). A case for redundant arrays of inexpensive disks (RAID). SIGMOD '88: Proceedings of the 1988 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data

109–116. This foundational academic paper on RAID explains that during reconstruction (rebuilding)

the array must satisfy user requests while also reading all other disks to reconstruct the lost data

which "degrades performance" (Section 4

Paragraph 3).

The dmesg -T (or --ctime) command is used to print kernel ring buffer messages with human-readable timestamps. This option converts the kernel's internal timestamp, which is typically the number of seconds since boot, into a standard wall-clock time format (e.g., [Tue May 21 10:30:00 2024]). This functionality is crucial for administrators who need to correlate kernel events with other system logs or real-world time, especially during troubleshooting and system analysis.

A. dmesg -t (--notime) suppresses the printing of timestamps, which is the opposite of the desired outcome.

B. dmesg -x (--decode) decodes facility and level (priority) numbers into human-readable prefixes, but it does not affect the timestamp format.

D. dmesg -W (--follow) waits for new messages to be added to the kernel ring buffer and prints them as they appear, similar to tail -f.

1. Oracle Linux 8 Documentation

dmesg(1) Manual Page: "-T

--ctime Print human-readable timestamps. The timestamp could be inaccurate! The time source used for the logs is not updated after system SUSPEND/RESUME."

2. The Linux man-pages project

dmesg(1): "-T

--ctime Print human-readable timestamps. Be aware that the timestamp could be inaccurate! The time source used for the logs is not updated after system SUSPEND/RESUME." This source also confirms the functions of -t

-x

and -W as described above.

The standard procedure for removing a physical volume (PV) from a volume group (VG) requires two key considerations. First, the VG's metadata must be updated to reflect the removal of the PV. This is accomplished using the vgreduce command, making it a mandatory step before the PV is considered fully removed from the LVM configuration (A). Second, a primary feature of LVM is its support for online administration. It is possible to migrate all data extents off a specific PV using pvmove and then use vgreduce to remove it from the VG, all while the VG and its logical volumes remain active and mounted. This capability is crucial for maintenance tasks like replacing disks without downtime (E).

B. The vgexport command is used to prepare an inactive VG for removal or migration to another system; it cannot be run on an active VG with mounted file systems.

C. This is incorrect. LVM is designed to allow for the online removal of a PV from an active VG, typically by first migrating its data with pvmove.

D. The ability to remove a PV depends on whether it contains any allocated extents, not on the active/inactive status of logical volumes that may reside on other PVs.

1. Oracle® Linux 7: Administrator's Guide

Section 10.3.5. "Removing Physical Volumes from a Volume Group". The documentation outlines the procedure using pvmove followed by vgreduce

and the examples do not require deactivating the volume group

confirming that the operation can be done on an active VG.

2. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8: Configuring and managing logical volumes

Section 4.4.8. "Removing physical volumes from a volume group". This official documentation states

"If there are logical volumes on the physical volume

you must move the data from the physical volume before you can remove it. You can use the pvmove command to move the data from the physical volume while your system is running." This explicitly confirms that a PV can be removed from an active VG.

3. LVM HOWTO

Section 5.6. "Removing disks from a volume group". This foundational guide details the process: "1. Use pvmove to move the allocated extents off the PV(s). 2. Use vgreduce to remove the PV(s) from the VG. 3. Use pvremove to remove the LVM metadata from the PV(s)." The context of pvmove is for online data migration

reinforcing that the VG can be active.

The /proc filesystem is a virtual filesystem that provides a direct interface to kernel data structures. It contains numerous files that report on the system's state, including /proc/cpuinfo for detailed processor information and /proc/meminfo for memory usage statistics.

Similarly, the /sys filesystem (sysfs) exports information from the kernel's device model to user space in a structured way. It also contains detailed information about core hardware, with CPU topology and control files located under /sys/devices/system/cpu/ and memory block information under /sys/devices/system/memory/. Both filesystems serve as sources for CPU and memory information, though they present it differently.

B. sys contains a list of running processes.

Incorrect. The /proc filesystem contains directories corresponding to each running process ID (PID), not /sys.

D. proc contains a list of network drivers.

Incorrect. The /sys filesystem provides a structured view of devices and their associated drivers, for example, under /sys/class/net/.

E. sys contains a list of mounted devices.

Incorrect. The list of mounted filesystems is found in /proc/mounts. /sys shows all detected devices, regardless of their mount status.

1. Oracle® Linux 7 Documentation: Administrator's Guide

Chapter 27

"Working with the /proc File System". Section 27.2

"Important /proc Files and Directories

" explicitly lists /proc/cpuinfo and /proc/meminfo as key files for retrieving system hardware information.

2. The Linux Kernel Documentation: The sysfs Filesystem. The official kernel documentation describes the layout of sysfs

detailing the /sys/devices/system/ hierarchy which contains the cpu and memory subdirectories for managing and viewing information about those subsystems. (Available at kernel.org/doc/html/latest/filesystems/sysfs.html).

3. proc(5) Linux Manual Page: The man page states

"The proc filesystem is a pseudo-filesystem which provides an interface to kernel data structures... It contains... information about the system

such as /proc/cpuinfo and /proc/meminfo."

4. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7 Documentation: Kernel Administration Guide

Chapter 5

"The sysfs filesystem". This guide explains that sysfs provides information about devices and drivers

and specifically mentions that CPU topology is exposed under /sys/devices/system/cpu/ and memory blocks under /sys/devices/system/memory/.

This option correctly maps all six Kubernetes components to their designated functions.

1. Kubectl (d) is the standard command-line interface for interacting with any Kubernetes cluster's API.
2. Etcd (f) is the distributed, consistent key-value store that serves as the backing store for all cluster data, holding its state and configuration.
3. Kubelet (c) is the primary agent that runs on every node, communicating with the control plane's API server to ensure containers described in PodSpecs are running and healthy.
4. Kube-proxy (e) is a network proxy on each node that maintains network rules and performs connection forwarding, implementing the Kubernetes Service concept.
5. Kube-apiserver (a) is the frontend for the control plane. It validates and processes all REST requests, updating the state of objects in etcd.
6. Kube-scheduler (b) is a control plane component that watches for new Pods and selects an appropriate node for them to run on based on resource availability and other constraints.

A. This option incorrectly maps Kubelet (3) to the kube-proxy's description (e) and the Kube-apiserver (5) to the kubelet's description (c).

B. This option incorrectly maps all six components to the wrong descriptions.

C. This option incorrectly maps all six components to the wrong descriptions.

D. This option incorrectly maps five of the six components, only matching Kube-proxy (4) and Etcd (2) correctly.

Kubernetes Authors. (n.d.). Kubernetes Components. Kubernetes Documentation.

Reference: Official vendor documentation.

Location: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/overview/components/

Details: The sections "Control Plane Components" and "Node Components" explicitly define all six components listed in the question, confirming the matches in option E.

Kube-apiserver: (Matches 'a') "The API server is a component of the Kubernetes control plane that exposes the Kubernetes API."

Etcd: (Matches 'f') "Consistent and highly-available key value store used as Kubernetes' backing store for all cluster data."

Kube-scheduler: (Matches 'b') "Control plane component that watches for newly created Pods with no assigned node, and selects a node for them to run on."

Kubelet: (Matches 'c') "An agent that runs on each node in the cluster. It makes sure that containers are running in a Pod."

Kube-proxy: (Matches 'e') "...a network proxy that runs on each node... kube-proxy maintains network rules on nodes."

Kubectl: (Matches 'd') "The Kubernetes command-line tool, kubectl, allows you to run commands against Kubernetes clusters."

Al-Sayyed, H. A., et al. (2023). Kubernetes: A comprehensive survey. Journal of Cloud Computing, 12(1), 84.

Reference: Peer-reviewed academic publication.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13677-023-00448-9

Location: Section 3 ("Kubernetes Architecture") and its subsections (3.1.1–3.2.2).

Details: This paper provides a detailed architectural overview, confirming the roles of each component. For example, Section 3.1.3 ("Scheduler") states it is "responsible for assigning the pods to the appropriate worker nodes based on resource availability" (Matches 'b'), and Section 3.2.2 ("Kube-proxy") states it is "...a network proxy that runs on each node and is responsible for network routing" (Matches 'e').

Ousterhout, J. (2021). Lecture 17: Kubernetes. Stanford University, CS 244B: Distributed Systems.

Reference: University courseware.

Location: https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs244b/2021/lectures/17-kubernetes.pdf

Details: Slides 15 ("Control Plane") and 18 ("Node Components") explicitly define these components. Slide 15 describes the API Server as "Processes/validates REST requests, updates state in etcd" (Matches 'a') and the Scheduler as "Selects a node for pod to run on" (Matches 'b'). Slide 18 defines the Kubelet as the "Agent that runs on each node... Communicates with API server" (Matches 'c').

A swap file created with dd is only a regular file until it is formatted with mkswap, which writes the swap header that swapon expects. After the header exists, the entry already placed in /etc/fstab can be activated with a single command that reads all swap definitions: swapon -a (--all). Without mkswap the header is missing (“read swap header failed”); without swapon -a the new file is not enabled.

C. Changing mount options in /etc/fstab does not create a swap header or activate the file; it has no effect on the reported errors.

D. swaplabel is optional and only needed when you intend to reference the area by label.

E. swapon -L requires a label first (option D) and is unnecessary when the file is already listed in /etc/fstab.

F. Partition type 82 applies to disk partitions, not to swap files created inside an existing filesystem.

1. Oracle Linux 8: Performing Common Tasks

“2.4.3 Creating a Swap File”

steps 3-4 (mkswap

swapon -a).

https://docs.oracle.com/en/operating-systems/oracle-linux/8/olperf/creating-swap-space.html

2. util-linux Project

man pages:

– mkswap(8)

“mkswap prepares an area to be used as swap space.”

– swapon(8)

“-a

--all: All devices marked as ‘swap’ in /etc/fstab are made available.”

3. MIT-OCW

Operating System Engineering (6.828)

Lecture notes “Virtual Memory: swapping”

p.4 – distinguishes formatting swap area (mkswap) from enabling it (swapon).